The draco, the Late Roman military standard

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The Draco,
the Late Roman military standard

By Robert Vermaat

Origins: Sarmatians, Alans, Parthians and Persians:

The draco Standard was originally developed by the cavalry peoples of the steppes, such as the Sarmatians and the Alans, but also by the Parthians and the Sassanid Persians. It may have been used primarily to determine the wind-direction for the horse archers. Arrian described it as a long sleeve, 'made by sewing pieces of dyed material together'. This sleeve/tube hung limp when the rider was at rest, but on the move it flew like a serpent and whistled in the wind. The hollow head, in the form of a toothed dragon, was formed from metal and the wind passing through it would extend the cloth tube tail attached to the neck of the head. The draco was also used by the Dacians (or their allies) and no less than 20 of these are shown on Trajan's Column. Other sources mention Parthian and Sassanid Persian dracos.
Not all such standards had dragon heads. The one below on the left from Trajan's Column shows the tubular tail with streamers attached. The head looks more like a dog (with ears) than a dragon. The one beside it has a much more serpentine head, and has scalloped rings attached to the tail. Other standards had no heads at all, just the fabric tube, while some had heads looking like wolves or even fishes. These had protruding ears and fins. The images below show part of the Arch of Galerius with several dracos.

A draco from Trajan's Column.

Another draco from Trajan's Column.

Several dracos on the Arch of Galerius (311AD), carried by infantry as well as cavalry.

4-5th-c. Coptic wall painting from Kharga Oasis, Egypt, showing Sassanid dracos.

Fectio's reconstruction of what such a fabric draco may have looked like.

Sassanid Persian dracos main have been made of fabric only. From the Historia Augusta we learn that when Aurelianus had reconquered Palmyra (272 AD), amongst the treasure were 'Persian dragon-flags' (Persici dracones)[1], which to me sounds like the standards we're discussing here. What these draco may have looked like we can see below; on the extreme right is a 5th c. AD Coptic wall painting, showing the occupying Sassanid Persian forces carrying two dracos.

The Roman draco

The Draco was adopted first into the Roman cavalry during the 2nd century AD, possibly with the introduction of Sarmatian cavalry into the Roman army. Arrian, who was writing c. 137 AD, described it as a Scythian (he most probably meant Sarmatian) invention which was adopted by Roman cavalry[2]. The Romans first began to use the draco in cavalry games, the so-called 'Hippica Gymnasia'. These were described by Arrian as glamorised versions of training exercises, performed in decorated armour. It is possible that the draco was introduced just because it was 'outlandish', foreign and glamourous. Points in the game were scored for strikes on the tail piece of the dracos carried by a team acting as 'targets', from dummy javelins thrown by another team of riders. Arrian recommended that the standard be colorful, adding to to the spectacle of cavalry parades. One should be given to each unit to maintain order in both displays and battle. The Roman cavalry adopted the draco probably during or after the Dacian wars, in which the equipment of the Roman cavalry was altere to withstand the charged of the lance-armed cavalry. These equipment changes included the adoption of the fully-armed cavalry (alae cataphractiorum) and the long lance. It would be logical to assume that this was the time when also the draco standard was introduced.

The choice for the dragon/serpent as model is not so easy to explain, because the steppe cultures used other animal's heads and continued to do so. However, it has been assumed that it was because of the Thracian dominance in Roman cavalry that the latter adopted the serpent shape. These Thracian horsemen had a deity which resembled a 'flying' serpent with scales, teeth and an upstanding crest, which may well have been a draco or something similar.

It is not documented when exactly the draco was adopted as a normal standard for all troop types. However, sources mention the draco being used with the infantry. The Historia Augusta mentions that the mother of Severus (193-211 AD) dreamt of a puple snake before his birth, something very alike what we later hear of the Imperial standard[3]. But since this source was probably compiled later, we can't be sure this has any bearing on a dating. We are on more solid ground with the entry of the reign of Gallienus (253-268 AD), when legionary troops are said to have paraded with a dracon amongst the standards of the legions[4] and the troops of Aurelianus (270-5 AD) also had draconarii amongst the standard-bearers[5]. This may lead us to conclude that the infantry began using dracos during the late 3rd c. On the Arch of Galerius, which was built before 311 AD to commemorate Galerius' war against Persia in 290 AD, several dracos can be seen to his left and right, carried by infantry as well as cavalry (see the image above, 2nd from right).

We have no good idea about the general appearance of the draco. Some draco heads may have looked like a draco, but some seem to look more like wolves or dogs, or even of an ass (..).

Also, we can't be sure of the lenght of the windsock, or the actual length of the pole on which it was carried.

However, the coins of the Emperor Trajan Decius (AD 249-251) give us some idea as to tall the latter was. If not a representation of a boar-headed trumpet (carnycus), it does not seem to have been taller than a man. In my opinion though, the Emperor would rather be shown with an standard.

The draco head was most probably constructed by first carving a wooden original, then beating a copper alloy sheet around it. This draco head was made of two halves, the bottom jaw being riveted against the top half. Adding a windsock may be a problem, because we have no clear idea how long it would be. However, trial and error will get you there, with of course different lengths and materials possible. I'd go for silk, which may be expensive, but it is light and gets the best result. Possibly, added hoops might keep the tail 'inflated', which can also be used to attach strips of cloth to create the 'streaming' effect of the flying beast described by Arrian (Ars. Tact. 35.3-4). The images below show a 2nd-3rd C. funeral stele from Chester, probably showing a Sarmatian draconarius.

The funeral stele from Chester.

Reconstruction of the stele from Chester.

Reconstruction drawing by Gerry Embleton, showing a Sarmatian in Roman service, based on the Chester stele as well as the 'dog' draco from Trajans Column.

Anoter view of the Niederbieber original.

The Niederbieber draco

The Roman draco developed into a real dragon, without ears but with scales and a crest. The only fully preserved draco was found in the Limes fortress of Niederbieber in Germany, which dates to the 3rd century. This copper alloy object was discovered near the SW edge of the vicus (civilian settlement) outside the fort. It can best be described as a scaled monster's head, measuring 30x12x12 cm, and with some probability is the head of a cohort's draco.
It is formed by the joining of two embossed sheets, the gilded upper one overlapping the lower tinned one, both attached by 5 rivets on each side. At the base of the neck the sheets form a circular flange, riveted together by 2 more rivets. Overlapping scales cover the head and neck, while a series of ridges covers the upper jaw from the nostrils to the eyes, which face sideways. The open mouth shows triangular teeth, but no fangs or canines. A crenellated crest is attached to the top of the head.
Two holes of similar size are pierced through both the throat and the skull behind the crest. No doubt a staff or the shaft of a spear would pass through here. Two axial slits, 2 cm long, pierce the botom of the lower jaw, probably to attach a lost mechanism that would have produced the hissing effect.

The Draco found in Niederbieber, Germany.

Reconstruction drawing by Eiden. The head is about 30 cm long, 12cm high (with comb 17 cm), and 12 cm wide.

The Niederbieber draco.

Another shot of these reconstructions in the Mainz museum.

The draco in the Late Roman army

The late 4th c. author Vegetius also mentions the draco as a common standard. He seems to have been confused about the difference between the old standards and the new dragons though, as he wrote that apparently standard- and draco-bearers differ[6], but also that the standardbearers 'are now named dragonbearers[7], that both are present in a camp[8], but also that each cohort has a draco[9]. if correct it would mean the first overall standard for the cohort (where before none had existed between the legionary aquila and the signa of the centuries). the draco may have foreshadowed the later common practise in the 3rd century to permanently detach cohortes from their parent legions.

By 357 AD, the Emperors Constantius and Julian (who was crowned by a draconarius[10]) had personal dracos sewn from a purple material. Ammianus Marcellinus writes of flags as well as draco being purple[11] and mentions them making a hissing sound in the wind[12]. The Emperor's personal draco standards made them identifyable in the heat of battle and may therefore have been mainly a tactital instrument rather than a personal adornment. Julian's draco at the battle of Argentorate (357) was important in his attempt to regain control of the battle. The early 5th/c. author Zosimus also mentions Julian being extremely cross when one was lost to the enemy during the Persian campaign[13] .
By the fifth century, as may be deduced from inscriptions from Perge and Prusias/Üskübü, Turkey, as well as a poem by Prudentius, there was a rank called magister draconum. This officer was the superior of the draconarii in a unit, ranking immediately below the tribune. However, we don't know if he directed the draconarii in battle, or may just have been the head of the standard bearers' club or scholae. The magister draconum probably replaced the optio signiferorum, whose function unfortunately is equally vague. Other ranks are less clear: from Cagliari/Sardinia we know an optio draconarius, while the bearcus draconarius seems to have been an unusually high-ranking draconarius.
Prudentius also tells us that Late Roman draconarii wore golden torcs as reward for their valor in battle. However, we learn from Ammianus that the torc may have been a badge of office, so possibly standard bearers were selected from those who had earlier received such torcs, marking them for an elite.

Below are some modern reconstructions of the Niederbieber draco:

The reconstruction from Marcus Junkelmann.

A reconstruction for the Carnuntum Archaeological Park.

Another shot of the Carnuntum draco.

A draco from Joe Piela.

The reconstruction by Michael Simkins.

Another shot of the reconstruction by Michael Simkins.

The Britannia draco.

Close-up of the Votadini draco.

The Foederati draco, reconstructed by Toni Feldon.

The Byzantine draconarius

The military manual called the Strategikon of the emperor Maurikios (582-602 AD) shows that draconarii were probably still around in the 6th. century. However, it is not clear whether the draconarius mentioned there[14] was already anachronistic or if he still had a proper military function - there was a scholae draconariorum, a non-military office staff of 10 clercs attached to a civilian praefectus praetorio. After the 6th century, the draconarius disappeared from the Byzantine army.

Reconstruction drawing by Angus McBride, showing a Parthian 'fish'.

Reconstruction drawing by Peter Conolly, showing the Hippica Gymnasia described by Arrian.

Reconstruction drawing by Angus McBride, after the Villa Maria catacomb fresco.

Reconstruction drawing by Richard Hook, with windsock.

After the Romans

Dracos continued in use in the Caucasus and Georgia, while in the West the Franks under Charlemagne may have adopted them again. This may show continuity, or else Charlemagne's attempts to eminate the Roman Army. We have a miniature from the late 9th-c. Psalterium Aureum (MS St. Gall. Stift-Bib. 22, fol. 140, illustrating Psalm 59), which shows a draco in a formation of heavy cavalry.
We also see it used at the battle of Hastings in 1066 AD, where it is carried by Harold Godwinson's retainer at the moment of his death.
The next image is from a 14th-century manuscript of L'Histoire de Merlin by Robert de Boron, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. It shows King Arthur in combat, brandishing what can only be a Medieval representation of a Late Roman draco. This is not supposed to reflect 14th-c. battle standards, but rather a fanciful idea of ancient use.
The last image shows the flag of modern Wales, in Welsh called Y Draig Goch (The Red Dragon). This red dragon, as the tale goes, would go back to the myth of the red and white dragons fighting on Vortigern's fort at Dinas Emrys in Gwynedd, Wales. These dragons, though, are thought by some to represent the draco of the Late Roman army.
The Dragon of Wessex, like the Red Dragon of Wales, may indeed represent some form of continuity. However, it could also show Francish influence in England and Wales during the early Middle Ages, as well as an antiquity-related Romanticism which has nothing to do with reality any more.

The Psalterium Aureum, showing a draco in the Francish army, c. 883.

The Bayeux Tapestry, showing the 'Dragon of Wessex' at the battle of Hastings, 1066.

King Arthur in combat, brandishing a draco. From L'Histoire de Merlin by Robert de Boron (14th C.).

The Welsh flag, still seen by many as going right back to King Arthur and possibly even Roman times.

See also:

How to make a draco by Ros Ereira
How to make a draco's head by Tim Blades
How to make a draco's noise by Peter Taylor

Special thanks to Sander van Dorst for providing the Greek quotes below:

Notes

^[1] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 28.4:

tunc illatae illae vestes, quas in Templo Solis videmus, consertae gemmis, tunc Persici dracones et tiarae, tunc genus purpurae, quod postea nec ulla genus detulit nec Romanus orbis vidit.

Then were brought in those garments, encrusted with jewels, which we now see in the Temple of the Sun, then, too, the Persian dragon-flags and head-dresses, and a species of purple such as of nation ever afterward offered or the Roman world beheld.

^[2]Arrianus, Tactica 35:

... Sèmeios de diakerimenoi epelaunousin, ou tois Rhoomaikos monon alla kai tois Skythikois, tou poikilooteran te kai hama phoberooteran gignesthai tèn elasi. Ta Skythika de sèmeia estin epi kontoon en mèkei xymmetrooi drakontes apaiooroumenoi. Poiountai de xyrraptoi ek rhakoon bebammenoon, tas te kephalas kai to sooma pan este epi tas ouras eikasmenoi ophesin, hoos phoberootata hoion te eikasthènai. Kai ta sophismata tauta atremountoon men toon hippoon ouden pleon è rhakè an idois pepoikilmena es to katoo apokremamena, elaunomenoon de empneomena exonkountai, hooste hoos malista tois thèriois epeoikenai, kai ti kai episyrizein pros tèn agan kinèsin hypo tèi pnoèi biaiai dierchomenèi.

'... They attack separated by standards, not only the Roman but the Scythian ones as well, so the charge becomes more colourful and fearsome at the same time. The Scythian standards are snakes of equal length held up on top of spearshafts. They are made of coloured pieces of cloth sewn together, the heads and their entire body up to the tail resembling serpents, so in order that they appear thus more frightening. And when the horses are not trembling from them the multicoloured bodies can be seen hanging down, however when charging they fill with air through the wind so they are most like the beasts and even hiss when a strong wind flows through much movement.'

^[3]Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus 4.1:

..mater eius pridie quam pareret somniavit se purpureum dracunculum parere, ..

The night before he was born his mother dreamed that she brought forth a purple snake, ..

^[4]Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Gallieni ii 8.6:

Hastae auratae altrinsecus quingenae, vexilla centena praeter ea, quae collegiorum erant, dracones et signa templorum omniumque legionum ibant.

On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded spears and one hundred banners, besides those which belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries and the statues from the sanctuaries and the standards of all the legions.

^[5] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 31.7:

Templum sane Solis, quod apud Palmyram aquiliferi legionis tertiae cum vexilliferis et draconario et cornicinibus atque liticinibus diripuerunt, ad eam formam volo, quae fuit, reddi.

Now as to the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, which has been pillaged by the eagle-bearers of the Third Legion, along with the standard-bearers, the dragonbearer, and the buglers and trumpeters, I wish there is restored to the condition in which it formerly was.

^[6] Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris 1.20:

... Quid ipsi draconarii atque signiferi, qui sinistra manu hastas gubernant, in proelio facient, quorum et capita nuda constant et pectora? ...

... What are the dragonbearers and standardbearers, which hold spears in their left hand, to do in battle, whose heads and breasts are naked ? ...'

^[7]ibidem 2.7:

... Signiferi qui signa portant, quos nunc draconarios vocant. ...

'... Standardbearers who carry the standards, whom they now call dragonbearers. ...'

^[8] ibidem 1.23:

... Porta autem, quae appelatur praetoria, aut orientem spectare debet aut illum locum, qui ad hostes respicit, aut, si iter agitur, illam partem debet adtendere, ad quam est profecturus exercitus, intra quam primae centuriae, hoc est cohortes, papiliones tendunt et dracones et signa constitutum. ...

'... The gate though, which is called the commander's, must either face east or to that spot, which faces towards the enemies, or, if a march is conducted, must be directed to that part, towards which the army is to march out, at the inside of which the first centuries, that is cohorts, set up tents and dragons and standards are pitched. ...'

^[9]ibidem, 2.13:

...Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis feruntur ad proelium ...

'Dragons, one each for the individual cohorts, are carried into battle by dragonbearers.'

^[10]Ammianus Marcellinus, 20.4.18:

... torquem, quo ut draconarius utebatur, capiti Iuliani imposuit ...

'... and he placed the torque, like the one used by a dragonbearer, on the head of Iulianus ...'

^[11] ibidem, 15.5.16:

... cultu purpureo a draconum et vexillorum insignibus ...

'... by the purple adornment from the signs of dragon standards and flags ...'

^[12]ibidem, 16.10.7:

... purpureis subtegminibus texti circumdedere dracones hastarum aureis gemmatisque summitatibus inligati, hiatu vasto perflabiles et ideo velut ira perciti sibilantes caudarumque volumina relinquentes in ventum.

'... the dragons, sewn from purple covers and placed on the gilded and jewel-studded tips of spears, letting wind through an enormous opening and in that way hissing as if they had been aroused in anger and the bodies of their tails flowing in the wind.'

[13] Zosimus, Historia Nova 3.19:

Meanwhile Surenas, advancing with a large army from a town in Assyria, surprised the reconnoitring party in advance of the army, killed one of the three tribunes and some of his men, and put the remainder to flight, carrying off a military ensign which was in the form of a dragon, such as the Romans usually carry in war. The emperor on learning this was much displeased, and in his anger attacked the forces of Surenas, compelled all to fly that could escape, retook the ensign which the enemy had carried off, and coming immediately to the city where Surenas had surprised the party, stormed, took, and burnt it. As the commander of the party, preferring his own safety to the valour and honour of a Roman, had left his standard in the enemy's hands, he deprived him of his girdle, regarding him as a mean and worthless person, together with all who had accompanied him in his flight

[14] Maurikios, Strategikon, 12.7:

'There should be drill masters, standard bearers or draconarii, trumpeters, armorers, weapon makers, bowmakers, arrow makers, and the rest according to regulations.'

Bibliography

Sources

Ammianus Marcellinus: the Later Roman Empire (AD 345-378), trans. Walter Hamilton, notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, (Penguin Classics, London, 1986).
Arrian: Tactica. Flavii Arriani Quae Exstant Omnia, edited by A. G Ross. 2 vols., (Leipzig. B. G. Teubner, 1968).
Historia Augusta, at: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html.
Mauricos: Strategikon, Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy, trans. by George T. Dennis, (Philadelphia 1984).
Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, trans. N.P. Milner, translated texts for historians vol. 16. (Liverpool 2001).
Zosimus: Historia Nova, ed. and trans by Buchanan, James J., and Davis, Harold T., (Trinity University press, San Antonio, Texas, 1967), pp. 249-58.

Secondary literature

Bishop, M.C. and J.C.N. Coulston (1993): Roman Military Equipment, from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Batsford).
Brzezinski, R. and M. Mielczarek (2002): The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450, Osprey Men-at-Arms 373, (Wellingsborough).
Coulston, J.C.N. (1991): The 'draco' standard, in: Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 2, pp. 101-14.
Fischer, Thomas (1999): Die Römer in Deutschland, Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart.
Junkelmann, Marcus (1990-2): Die Reiter Roms, 3 vols., (Mainz).
Macdowall, Simon and Howard Gerrard (ill.) (2001): Adrianople 378 AD, Campaign 84, (Osprey, London).
Nicolle, David and Angus McBride (ill.) (1996): Sassanian armies, The Iranian Empire, early 3rd to mid-7th centuries AD, (Montvert, Stockport).
Oelwein, Cornelia (1998): Römer in Deutschland, (HB Bildatlas 20).
Shadrake, Dan, Susanna and Richard Hook (ill.) (1997): Barbarian Warriors, Saxons, Vikings, Normans, Brassey's History of Uniforms 7, (Brassey's, London).
Speidel, M.P. (1985): The Master of the Dragon Standards and the Golden Torc: an Inscription from Prusias and Prudentius' Peristephanon, in: Transactions of the American Philological Association 115, pp 290-5.
Sumner, Graham and Graham Turner (ill.) (1997): Roman Army, Wars of the Empire, Brassey's History of Uniforms 8, (Brassey's, London).

On the internet

Britannia Arthurian Society, at: http://www.durolitum.co.uk/
Beale, Richard: website about the bronze coins of Trajan Decius, Trebonianus Gallus, Aemilian, and their families, at: http://sonic.net/~rbeale/mysite/index.htm.